To run a development version of Bitcoin Core from a docker container with Ubuntu:

Preparing the environment

1. Follow the instructions on How to compile Bitcoin Core for Ubuntu

Running the software

2. Install Bitcoin Core

Inside the docker container:

exit

From the host machine:

docker exec -u root -t bitcoin.ubuntu bash -c "cd /projects/bitcoin ; make install"

3. Run it!

docker exec -it bitcoin.ubuntu bash

Inside the guest container:

bitcoind -daemon

bitcoin-cli getblockchaininfo

bitcoin-cli stop

Detailed running instructions at Bitcoin It - Running Bitcoin